matter
standard model
MATTER - ANTIMATTER
Definition [6]
In modern physics, antimatter is defined as matter composed of the antiparticles (or "partners") of the corresponding particles in "ordinary" matter. Antimatter occurs in natural processes like cosmic ray collisions and some types of radioactive decay, but only a tiny fraction of these have successfully been bound together in experiments to form antiatoms. Minuscule numbers of antiparticles can be generated at particle accelerators, however, total artificial production has been only a few nanograms[1] No macroscopic amount of antimatter has ever been assembled due to the extreme cost and difficulty of production and handling.
Theoretically, a particle and its antiparticle (for example, a proton and an antiproton) have the same mass, but opposite electric charge, and other differences in quantum numbers.
A collision between any particle and its anti-particle partner leads to their mutual annihilation, giving rise to various proportions of intense photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and sometimes less-massive particle–antiparticle pairs.
The majority of the total energy of annihilation emerges in the form of ionizing radiation. If surrounding matter is present, the energy content of this radiation will be absorbed and converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or light. The amount of energy released is usually proportional to the total mass of the collided matter and antimatter, in accordance with the notable mass–energy equivalence equation, E=mc2.[2]
Antimatter particles bind with each other to form antimatter, just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter. For example, a positron (the antiparticle of the electron) and an antiproton (the antiparticle of the proton) can form an antihydrogen atom. The nuclei of antihelium have been artificially produced, albeit with difficulty, and are the most complex anti-nuclei so far observed.[3] Physical principles indicate that complex antimatter atomic nuclei are possible, as well as anti-atoms corresponding to the known chemical elements.
There is strong evidence that the observable universe is composed almost entirely of ordinary matter, as opposed to an equal mixture of matter and antimatter.[4] This asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics.[5] The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called baryogenesis.
Creation
Antimatter creation occurs naturally in high-energy processes involving cosmic rays and high-energy experiments in accelerators on Earth. High-energy cosmic rays impacting Earth’s atmosphere (or any other matter in the Solar System) produce minute quantities of antiparticles in the resulting particle jets, which are immediately annihilated by contact with nearby matter. The presence of the resulting antimatter is detectable by the two gamma rays (with 511 keV) produced every time positrons annihilate with nearby matter.
Antimatter creation is also very common in the nuclear decay of many isotopes. Let’s assume a decay of potassium-40. Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body. 40K is a radioactive isotope of potassium that has a very long half-life of 1.251×109 years and undergoes both types of beta decay. [7]
ln-Depth Reading
- Matter and Antimatter in the Universe. Laurent Canettia , Marco Drewesb, Mikhail Shaposhnikov (2012)
- On the origin of matter-antimatter asymmetry in the Universe. Efstratios Manousakis -Department of Physics, Florida State University (2022)
- Antimatter in the Milky Way. A. D. Dolgov - Department of Physics, Novosibirsk State University, Russia (2022)
- The Asymmetry of Antimatter in the Proton. J. Dove e.o. (2021)
- Antimatter as Macroscopic Dark Matter. Jagjit Singh Sidhua, Robert J. Scherrer , Glenn Starkman (2020)
- Dark origins of matter-antimatter asymmetry. Venus Keus - Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics (2020)
- Antimatter gravity and the Universe. Dragan Slavkov Hajdukovic - Institute of Physics, Astrophysics and Cosmology, Cetinje, Montenegro (2019)
- Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry Of The Universe and Baryon Formation From Non-Equilibrium Quarks and Gluons. Gouranga C Nayak (2019)
- Throwing away antimatter via neutrino oscillations during the reheating era. Shintaro Eijima, Ryuichiro Kitano and Wen Yin. (2019)
Literature
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arXiv:2211.09579 [pdf, ps, other]
Evolution and Possible Forms of Primordial Antimatter and Dark Matter celestial objects
Authors: M. Yu. Khlopov, O. M. Lecian
Submitted 17 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022.
Comments: Prepared for Proceedings of XXV Bled Workshop "What comes beyond the Standard models?"
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arXiv:2211.06381 [pdf, ps, other]
Antimatter Free-Fall Experiments and Charge Asymmetry
Authors: U. D. Jentschura
Submitted 10 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022.
Comments: 10 pages; 1 figure
Journal ref: Symmetry 13, 1192 (2021)
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Implications of a matter-antimatter mass asymmetry in Penning-trap experiments
Authors: Ting Cheng, Manfred Lindner, Manibrata Sen
Submitted 19 October, 2022; originally announced October 2022.
Comments: 6 pages, 2 figures
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New Window on Matter-Antimatter Differences
Authors: Xiaorong Zhou, Stephen Lars Olsen
Submitted 27 September, 2022; originally announced September 2022.
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arXiv:2208.13864 [pdf, ps, other]
Matter-antimatter Asymmetry, CP Violation and the Time Operator in Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Authors: M. Bauer
Submitted 29 August, 2022; originally announced August 2022.
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Matter-antimatter asymmetry restrains the dimensionality of neural representations: quantum decryption of large-scale neural coding
Authors: Sofia Karamintziou
Submitted 8 November, 2022; v1 submitted 17 June, 2022; originally announced June 2022.
Comments: 33 pages;3 figures;1 table;minor edits
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doi10.1016/j.physletb.2022.137049
On the origin of matter-antimatter asymmetry in the Universe
Authors: Efstratios Manousakis
Submitted 7 April, 2022; originally announced April 2022.
Journal ref: Physics Letters B Vol 829, 137049 (2022)
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arXiv:2203.15512 [pdf, ps, other]
Gravitational matter-antimatter impact interactions
Authors: K. Wilhelm, B. N. Dwivedi
Submitted 21 March, 2022; originally announced March 2022.
Comments: 9 Pages and 04 Figures
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Topological portals from matter to antimatter
Authors: Andrea Addazi
Submitted 24 February, 2022; originally announced February 2022.
Comments: to appear in Symmetry, MDPI, special issue "The Neutron Physics - Dark Matter Connection: Bridge Through the Baryon Symmetry Violation"
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doi10.1103/PhysRevD.106.L031502
Polarized Antimatter in the Proton from Global QCD Analysis
Authors: C. Cocuzza, W. Melnitchouk, A. Metz, N. Sato
Submitted 7 February, 2022; originally announced February 2022.
Comments: 4 figures
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arXiv:2201.01256 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1051/epjconf/202226201007
Minimizing plasma temperature for antimatter mixing experiments
Authors: E. D. Hunter, C. Amsler, H. Breuker, S. Chesnevskaya, G. Costantini, R. Ferragut, M. Giammarchi, A. Gligorova, G. Gosta, H. Higaki, Y. Kanai, C. Killian, V. Kletzl, V. Kraxberger, N. Kuroda, A. Lanz, M. Leali, V. Mäckel, G. Maero, C. Malbrunot, V. Mascagna, Y. Matsuda, S. Migliorati, D. J. Murtagh, Y. Nagata , et al. (15 additional authors not shown)
Submitted 2 February, 2022; v1 submitted 4 January, 2022; originally announced January 2022.
Comments: Proceedings of the Exotic Atoms (EXA) Conference, Vienna, 2021
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Antimatter in the Milky Way
Authors: A. D. Dolgov
Submitted 30 December, 2021; originally announced December 2021.
Comments: 7 pages, 2 figures, based on the invited talks at 20th Lomonosov Conference on Elementary Particle Physics,10th International Conference on New Frontiers in Physics, Advances in Quantum Field Theory - 2021
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arXiv:2111.14114 [pdf, ps, other]
Statistical analyses of antimatter domains, created by nonhomogeneous baryosynthesis in a baryon asymmetrical Universe
Authors: M. Yu. Khlopov, O. M. Lecian
Submitted 28 November, 2021; originally announced November 2021.
Comments: Prepared for Proceedings of XXIV Bled Workshop "What comes beyond the Standard models?"
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doi10.1103/PhysRevD.104.063042
Radiation from matter-antimatter annihilation in the quark nugget model of dark matter
Authors: V. V. Flambaum, I. B. Samsonov
Submitted 10 September, 2021; v1 submitted 2 August, 2021; originally announced August 2021.
Comments: 17 pages, 5 figures; v2: minor corrections, references added
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. D 104, 063042 (2021)
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arXiv:2106.11203 [pdf, ps, other]
Antistars or antimatter cores in mirror neutron stars?
Authors: Zurab Berezhiani
Submitted 21 June, 2021; originally announced June 2021.
Comments: 11 pages
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Axion Quark Nuggets. Dark Matter and Matter-Antimatter asymmetry: theory, observations and future experiments
Authors: Ariel Zhitnitsky
Submitted 18 May, 2021; originally announced May 2021.
Comments: invited brief review to be published in MPLA
Journal ref: Modern Physics Letters A Vol 36, No 18, 2130017 (2021)
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Matter-antimatter asymmetry induced by non-linear electrodynamics
Authors: H. B. Benaoum, A. Ovgun
Submitted 17 May, 2021; originally announced May 2021.
Comments: To appear in Classical and Quantum Gravity; 12 pages; dedicated to Andrei Sakharov on the occasion of his 100th birthday
Journal ref: Class. Quantum Grav. 38 135019 (2021)
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arXiv:2104.05013 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1103/PhysRevD.104.056028
The effects of non-helical component of hypermagnetic field on the evolution of the matter-antimatter asymmetry, vorticity, and hypermagnetic field
Authors: S. Abbaslu, S. Rostam Zadeh, A. Rezaei, S. S. Gousheh
Submitted 11 April, 2021; originally announced April 2021.
Comments: 33 pages, 5 figures
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. D 104, 056028 (2021)
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arXiv:2103.04024 [pdf, ps, other]
The Asymmetry of Antimatter in the Proton
Authors: J. Dove, B. Kerns, R. E. McClellan, S. Miyasaka, D. H. Morton, K. Nagai, S. Prasad, F. Sanftl, M. B. C. Scott, A. S. Tadepalli, C. A. Aidala, J. Arrington, C. Ayuso, C. L. Barker, C. N. Brown, W. C. Chang, A. Chen, D. C. Christian, B. P. Dannowitz, M. Daugherity, M. Diefenthaler, L. El Fassi, D. F. Geesaman, R. Gilman, Y. Goto , et al. (42 additional authors not shown)
Submitted 5 March, 2021; originally announced March 2021.
Comments: 10 pages, 5 figures, 5 tables; Matches published version
Report number: FERMILAB-PUB-21-073-E
Journal ref: Nature, 590, 561-565 (2021)
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doi10.1103/PhysRevD.104.103029
Explaining cosmic ray antimatter with secondaries from old supernova remnants
Authors: Philipp Mertsch, Andrea Vittino, Subir Sarkar
Submitted 28 September, 2021; v1 submitted 23 December, 2020; originally announced December 2020.
Comments: 10 pages, 5 figures
Report number: TTK-20-51
Journal ref: PRD 104 (2021) 103029
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Matter-antimatter asymmetry and non-inertial effects
Authors: V. M. G. Silveira, C. A. Z. Vasconcellos, E. G. S. Luna, D. Hadjimichef
Submitted 16 December, 2020; originally announced December 2020.
Comments: 15 pages, 1 table, 4 figures
Journal ref: J. High Energy Phys. 2021, 285 (2021)
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arXiv:2011.11086 [pdf, ps, other]
On Generalized Lemaitre-Tolman-Bondi Metric. Fractal Matter at the end of Matter-Antimatter Recombination
Authors: Sergio Cacciatori, Alessio Marrani, Federico Re
Submitted 22 November, 2020; originally announced November 2020.
Comments: 1+26 pages, 0 figures
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Anihelium flux from antimatter globular cluster
Authors: M. Yu. Khlopov, A. O. Kirichenko, A. G. Mayorov
Submitted 13 November, 2020; originally announced November 2020.
Comments: Prepared for Proceedings of XXIII Bled Workshop "What comes beyond the Standard models?"
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arXiv:2009.03754 [pdf, ps, other]
Snowmass 2021 Letter of Interest: The GRAMS Project: MeV Gamma-Ray Observations and Antimatter-Based Dark Matter Searches
Authors: Tsuguo Aramaki, Jonathan Asaadi, Yuto Ichinohe, Yoshiyuki Inoue, Georgia Karagiorgi, Jon Leyva, Reshmi Mukherjee, Hirokazu Odaka, Kerstin Perez, William Seligman, Satoshi Takashima, Naomi Tsuji, Hiroki Yoneda
Submitted 8 September, 2020; originally announced September 2020.
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doi10.1016/j.physletb.2020.135574
Antimatter as Macroscopic Dark Matter
Authors: Jagjit Singh Sidhu, Robert J. Scherrer, Glenn Starkman
Submitted 4 June, 2020; v1 submitted 1 June, 2020; originally announced June 2020.
Comments: 13 pages, 1 figure
Journal ref: Phys. Let. B, 807, 135574, (2020)
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arXiv:2003.08733 [pdf, ps, other]
Antimatter Gravity: Second Quantization and Lagrangian Formalism
Authors: Ulrich D. Jentschura
Submitted 18 July, 2020; v1 submitted 12 March, 2020; originally announced March 2020.
Comments: 19 pages; LaTeX
Journal ref: Physics 2 (2020) 397-411
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Dark origins of matter-antimatter asymmetry
Authors: Venus Keus
Submitted 4 March, 2020; originally announced March 2020.
Comments: 15 pages, 8 figures. arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:1909.09234
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arXiv:2001.03499 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-09272-9
The generation of matter-antimatter asymmetries and hypermagnetic fields by the chiral vortical effect of transient fluctuations
Authors: S. Abbaslu, S. Rostam Zadeh, M. Mehraeen, S. S. Gousheh
Submitted 22 June, 2021; v1 submitted 10 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020.
Comments: 22 pages, 6 figures
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Antimatter gravity and the Universe
Authors: Dragan Hajdukovic
Submitted 21 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019.
Journal ref: Modern Physics Letters A, 2030001 (2019)
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doi10.1103/PhysRevD.102.055009
A new mechanism for matter-antimatter asymmetry and connection with dark matter
Authors: Arnab Dasgupta, P. S. Bhupal Dev, Sin Kyu Kang, Yongchao Zhang
Submitted 9 September, 2020; v1 submitted 7 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019.
Comments: 12 pages, 7 figures and 1 table, title changed, some figures updated and added, more comments, version to appear in PRD
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. D 102, 055009 (2020)
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Constraint on the Matter-Antimatter Symmetry-Violating Phase in Neutrino Oscillations
Authors: K. Abe, R. Akutsu, A. Ali, C. Alt, C. Andreopoulos, L. Anthony, M. Antonova, S. Aoki, A. Ariga, Y. Asada, Y. Ashida, E. T. Atkin, Y. Awataguchi, S. Ban, M. Barbi, G. J. Barker, G. Barr, C. Barry, M. Batkiewicz-Kwasniak, A. Beloshapkin, F. Bench, V. Berardi, S. Berkman, L. Berns, S. Bhadra , et al. (310 additional authors not shown)
Submitted 25 January, 2021; v1 submitted 9 October, 2019; originally announced October 2019.
Journal ref: Nature 580, 339-344 (2020)
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arXiv:1909.05640 [pdf, ps, other]
Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry Of The Universe and Baryon Formation From Non-Equilibrium Quarks and Gluons
Authors: Gouranga C Nayak
Submitted 3 September, 2019; originally announced September 2019.
Comments: 14 pages latex
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doi10.1088/1475-7516/2020/03/048
Throwing away antimatter via neutrino oscillations during the reheating era
Authors: Shintaro Eijima, Ryuichiro Kitano, Wen Yin
Submitted 16 September, 2019; v1 submitted 30 August, 2019; originally announced August 2019.
Comments: 20pages, 1figure, v2: reference added, typo corrected
Report number: KEK-TH-2153
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arXiv:1908.10105 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1103/PhysRevD.100.116022
Contribution of the chiral vortical effect to the evolution of the hypermagnetic field and the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the early Universe
Authors: S. Abbaslu, S. Rostam Zadeh, S. S. Gousheh
Submitted 10 January, 2020; v1 submitted 27 August, 2019; originally announced August 2019.
Comments: 28 pages, 2 figures
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. D 100, 116022 (2019)
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arXiv:1907.04890 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1103/PhysRevD.101.045001
Gravitational and Chiral Anomalies in the Running Vacuum Universe and Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
Authors: Spyros Basilakos, Nick E. Mavromatos, Joan Sola
Submitted 30 January, 2020; v1 submitted 10 July, 2019; originally announced July 2019.
Comments: 76 pages revtex, no figures; minor typos corrections as compared to previous version. No effects on conclusions. Version to be published in Physical Review D
Report number: KCL-PH-TH/2019-44
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. D 101, 045001 (2020)
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arXiv:1906.08665 [pdf, ps, other]
First Demonstration of Antimatter Quantum Interferometry
Authors: M. Giammarchi
Submitted 25 June, 2019; v1 submitted 20 June, 2019; originally announced June 2019.
Comments: Presented at the Eighth Meeting on CPT and Lorentz Symmetry, Bloomington, Indiana, May 12-16, 2019
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A channel for very high density matter-antimatter pair-jet production by intense laser-pulses
Authors: D. Del Sorbo, L. Antonelli, P. J. Davies, L. N. K. Döhl, C. D. Murphy, N. Woolsey, F. Fiuza, H. Chen, C. P. Ridgers
Submitted 4 February, 2019; originally announced February 2019.
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GAPS, low-energy antimatter for indirect dark-matter search
Authors: E. Vannuccini, T. Aramaki, R. Bird, M. Boezio, S. E. Boggs, V. Bonvicini, D. Campana, W. W. Craig, P. von Doetinchem, E. Everson, L. Fabris, F. Gahbauer, C. Gerrity, H. Fuke, C. J. Hailey, T. Hayashi, C. Kato, A. Kawachi, M. Kozai, A. Lowell, M. Martucci, S. I. Mognet, R. Munini, K. Munakata, S. Okazaki , et al. (15 additional authors not shown)
Submitted 17 December, 2018; originally announced December 2018.
Comments: 7 pages, 3 figures, Low Energy Antiproton Physics Conference (LEAP) 2018, Paris (France)
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arXiv:1812.06628 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.204801
Polarized light from the transportation of a matter-antimatter beam in a plasma
Authors: Ujjwal Sinha, Christoph H. Keitel, Naveen Kumar
Submitted 17 December, 2018; originally announced December 2018.
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 204801 (2019)
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Why is there more matter than antimatter? Calculational methods for leptogenesis and electroweak baryogenesis
Authors: Bjorn Garbrecht
Submitted 29 January, 2020; v1 submitted 6 December, 2018; originally announced December 2018.
Comments: 68 pages; version 3: typos corrected, matches journal version
Report number: TUM-HEP-1177-18
Journal ref: Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics 110 (2020), 103727
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arXiv:1812.00504 [pdf, ps, other]
Spontaneous CPT Violation and Quantum Anomalies in a Model for Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry in the Cosmos
Authors: Nick E. Mavromatos, Sarben Sarkar
Submitted 2 December, 2018; originally announced December 2018.
Comments: 18 pages rev tex. Plenary talk (by N.E.M.) at the 7th International Conference of New Frontiers in Physics 2018, 4-12 July 2018, Kolymbari (Greece); review with possible text overlap with: arXiv:1209.6387 [hep-ph], arXiv:1403.7684 [hep-ph], arXiv:1412.7077 [hep-ph], arXiv:1712.03312 [hep-ph], arXiv:1810.13384 [hep-ph]
Report number: KCL-PH-TH/2018-66
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First observation of antimatter wave interference
Authors: A. Ariga, A. Ereditato, R. Ferragut, M. Giammarchi, M. Leone, C. Pistillo, S. Sala, P. Scampoli
Submitted 28 August, 2018; v1 submitted 27 August, 2018; originally announced August 2018.
Comments: 8 pages, 4 figures
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Gravity, antimatter and the Dirac-Milne universe
Authors: Gabriel Chardin, Giovanni Manfredi
Submitted 30 July, 2018; originally announced July 2018.
Comments: Proceedings of the Low Energy Antiproton Physics Conference (LEAP), Sorbonne University, Paris, March 12th to 16th, 2018
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arXiv:1805.11024 [pdf, ps, other]
Matter-antimatter asymmetry and other cosmological puzzles via running vacuum cosmologies
Authors: J. A. S Lima, Douglas Singleton
Submitted 24 May, 2018; originally announced May 2018.
Comments: 11 pages revtex4. Accepted for publication in IJMPD
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Studying Antimatter Gravity with Muonium
Authors: MAGE Collaboration, Aldo Antognini, Daniel M. Kaplan, Klaus Kirch, Andreas Knecht, Derrick C. Mancini, James D. Phillips, Thomas J. Phillips, Robert D. Reasenberg, Thomas J. Roberts, Anna Soter
Submitted 6 February, 2018; v1 submitted 31 January, 2018; originally announced February 2018.
Comments: 14 pages, 8 figures, submitted to Atoms
Report number: IIT-CAPP-17-5
Journal ref: Atoms 2018, 6(2), 17
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arXiv:1801.10059 [pdf, ps, other]
Is The Universal Matter - Antimatter Asymmetry Fine Tuned?
Authors: Gary Steigman, Robert J. Scherrer
Submitted 30 January, 2018; originally announced January 2018.
Comments: Chapter for the book, Consolidation of Fine Tuning; 38 pages, 1 figure
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doi10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.183002
Constraints on exotic spin-dependent interactions between matter and antimatter from antiprotonic helium spectroscopy
Authors: Filip Ficek, Pavel Fadeev, Victor V. Flambaum, Derek F. Jackson Kimball, Mikhail G. Kozlov, Yevgeny V. Stadnik, Dmitry Budker
Submitted 1 January, 2018; originally announced January 2018.
Comments: 10 pages, 6 figures, 3 appendices
Journal ref: Phys. Rev. Lett. 120, 183002 (2018)
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The GAPS Experiment to Search for Dark Matter using Low-energy Antimatter
Authors: R. A. Ong, T. Aramaki, R. Bird, M. Boezio, S. E. Boggs, R. Carr, W. W. Craig, P. von Doetinchem, L. Fabris, F. Gahbauer, C. Gerrity, H. Fuke, C. J. Hailey, C. Kato, A. Kawachi, M. Kozai, S. I. Mognet, K. Munakata, S. Okazaki, G. Osteria, K. Perez, V. Re, F. Rogers, N. Saffold, Y. Shimizu , et al. (4 additional authors not shown)
Submitted 1 October, 2017; originally announced October 2017.
Comments: 8 pags, 3 figures, Proc. 35th International Cosmic Ray Conference (ICRC 2017), Busan, Korea
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Cosmic-ray Antimatter
Authors: Kfir Blum, Ryosuke Sato, Eli Waxman
Submitted 19 September, 2017; originally announced September 2017.
Comments: 42 pgs, 18 figs. Invited paper for RMP
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arXiv:1709.01400 [pdf, ps, other]
doi10.1140/epjc/s10052-017-5429-x
Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry Induced by a Running Vacuum Coupling
Authors: J. A. S. Lima, Douglas Singleton
Submitted 14 December, 2017; v1 submitted 2 September, 2017; originally announced September 2017.
Comments: 6 pages two column format, 1 table. Published version EPJC
Journal ref: Eur.Phys.J. C77 (2017) no.12, 855
References
[1] "Ten things you might not know about antimatter". symmetry magazine. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
[2] "Smidgen of Antimatter Surrounds Earth". 11 August 2011. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011.
[3] Agakishiev, H.; et al. (STAR Collaboration) (2011). "Observation of the antimatter helium-4 nucleus". Nature. 473 (7347): 353–356. arXiv:1103.3312. Bibcode:2011Natur.473..353S.
[4] Canetti, L.; et al. (2012). "Matter and Antimatter in the Universe". New J. Phys. 14 (9): 095012. arXiv:1204.4186. Bibcode:2012NJPh...14i5012C. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012. S2CID 119233888.
[5] Tenenbaum, David (28 December 2012). "One step closer: UW-Madison scientists help explain scarcity of antimatter". University of Wisconsin–Madison News. Archived from the original on 28 December 2012.
[6] Wikipedia
[7] Matter – Antimatter Creation and Annihilation. Nuclear Power, s.v.
